The Inner Level by Richard Wilkinson and Kate Pickett is a follow-up to their very successful work, The Spirit Level. Although this one purports to focus on the wellbeing of the individual in a more equal society, whereas the first demonstrated the links between inequality and social breakdowns across society as a whole, both works cover much of the same territory. This may be because the authors are not simply social scientists reporting on their field of study but campaigners, seeking to convince us that we must work for radical change in society, to make it equal and cooperative, rather than individualistic and competitive. They suggest at the end of both texts how this may be achieved and include a plug for their organisation, The Equality Trust.
The Spirit Level was so successful that the correlation between inequality, generally measured by inequality of income, and social ills such as mental health problems, addiction, obesity, teenage pregnancy, life expectancy and educational achievement are no longer surprising. There will always be those who argue that social malaise is caused by anything from Anglo-Saxon culture to the collapse of Christendom, and they will probably be able to supply figures to back their claims. However, the arguments of Wilkinson and Pickett are reinforced by a wealth of empirical evidence and innumerable graphs. Some might argue that their choice of evidence is selective and even the most reliable of statistics can be used to promote a particular bias. Moreover, the search for general conclusions leads to a glossing over of differences between countries. Of course, this is not an academic treatise, but a book aimed at the lay reader; nevertheless, all the figures are scrupulously referenced.
Although I found no difficulty in accepting the assertions about the link between equality and wellbeing in contemporary society, I felt more uneasy about the arguments based on claims about human evolution, most of which are found in Chapter 5, ‘The Human Condition’. According to the writers, pre-humans and primates have a dominance ranking system, where the most powerful or alpha male dominates; however, in early human hunter-gatherer societies, there was co-operation and social egalitarianism. ‘Although generations of anthropologists have recognised, studied and written about the equality of hunter-gatherer societies, our egalitarian past remains virtually unknown to the public at large, and many people imagine that human nature is irredeemably competitive and self-serving.’ With the coming of agriculture, a comparatively late development, this egalitarianism gave way to a hierarchical, unequal type of society more akin to the dominance ranking system. Wilkinson and Pickett posit that there are thus two human natures whose potential is carried in our genes and which are expressed epigenetically, according to the environment in which we find ourselves. They also suggest that the early egalitarian societies led to the evolution of notions of morality and justice, which in the individual make their appearance in early childhood. All of this may be true, but what difference would it make if it were not? Even if we could show that human nature is invariably selfish and competitive, would we not still believe in equality and fairness as morally good? If not, we would be condemning ourselves to the fascistic beliefs of ‘might is right’.
Pickett and Wilkinson successfully show that human beings are happier in more equal societies and moreover, that this applies to all, those at the top of the heap as well as those at the bottom. Insecurity and the need to show yourself superior requires conspicuous consumption in order to maintain status, resulting either in narcissistic self aggrandisement or depression and withdrawal from society. The need for change is evident and urgent, not only for humanity but also for the planet, where resources are degraded and exhausted by competitive demand. It is very difficult to convince people that such change is in their own interest. The models of egalitarianism offered, hunter-gatherer society or the French village described by Wilkinson in Chapter 1, are neither attractive nor practicable for the majority. Agriculture may have led to hierarchy but it also provided the basis for art and culture which we would be unwilling to forfeit. The authors argue for a return to progressive politics. We cannot depend on evolutionary determinism, but rather use our moral, rational and imaginative faculties, however acquired, to work towards a more equal society.
Kathleen McPhilemy’s poetry collections include A Tented Peace and The Lion in the Forest (both Katabasis).
The Inner Level by Richard Wilkinson and Kate Pickett. Allen Lane (London) 2018. Hbk. 352 pages. £20.